Tag: Lithium-ion batteries

Synchrotron light reveals hidden benefits in cobalt-free battery materials

Synchrotron light reveals hidden benefits in cobalt-free battery materials

An international study led by researchers at the ALBA Synchrotron has analysed the effect of cobalt removal from Lithium-rich cathodes using operando multi-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy. The research, published in Materials Today Energy, reveals that Cobalt-free cathode compositions outperform those with cobalt by reducing oxygen release and improving structural stability. These results point towards a new avenue for sustainable and high-performance battery technologies.

The development of more sustainable and efficient energy storage solutions is one of the main challenges facing society today. At the heart of these initiatives are lithium-ion batteries, powering electric vehicles and enabling sustainable renewable energy storage systems. Their widespread use is driven by their high energy density, stability, and greater efficiency compared to other technologies.

Transition metals like nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), and cobalt (Co) are frequently used in lithium-ion battery cathodes because they promote electrochemical reversible redox reactions, providing high energy density and reliable performances. However, these compositions also suffer from voltage fade and structural instability, leading to performance degradation over multiple cycles. Cobalt was thought to play a particular crucial role in stabilizing the layered structure of these cathode materials by improving electronic conductivity. Yet, its high cost, limited supply, and safety concerns have driven researchers to look for alternatives to reduce or eliminate cobalt from cathodes while enhancing battery performance.

This study, led by researchers at the ALBA Synchrotron, used advanced operando X-ray spectroscopy techniques to observe how cobalt removal affects the material at the atomic level, uncovering key structural and electronic transformations in real time. The main innovation lies in the multi-modal experimental approach, where multi-edge operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy coupled the results obtainable from both the x-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) and extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectral regions. Moreover, the hard x-ray operando absorption data collected at CLAESS beamline have been coupled with high-resolution transmission X-ray microscopy in the soft x-ray energy range conducted at MISTRAL beamlines, in both cases ALBA beamlines. This approach allowed the researchers to better understand the charge compensation mechanisms during cycling and the specific role of each transition metal and oxygen species.

The study compared two lithium-rich NMC cathodes. NMC is a layered oxide material made of nickel, manganese and cobalt. One of the studied cathodes presented a low cobalt content and the other was Co-free variant, both synthesized via co-precipitation followed by a solid-state reaction. These cathodes were assembled into coin-cell batteries to assess their electrochemical performance through charge and discharge cycles. During cycling, the researchers employed operando multi-edge X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) to monitor real-time oxidation state changes in transition metals and, indirectly, on the oxygen species. Automated big data post processing has been applied. While the XANES region have been analysed with advanced statistical methods, automated fitting techniques were also exploited to extract complementary quantitative information from the EXAFS signals. Additionally, full-field Transmission X-ray Microscopy (TXM) was used to analyse nanoscale morphological and structural transformations.

The combination of all these techniques provided critical insights into Co’s role in stabilizing the layered structure along cycling and how its absence impacts battery performance.Operando XANES measurements confirmed that in the Co-free material, nickel undergoes a more complete and faster oxidation process during the first charge cycle, which enhances charge compensation and reduces irreversible oxygen loss. The X-ray Microscopy analysis further revealed that removing Co suppresses the formation of the Mn spinel phase in the bulk of the material particles, a key factor in capacity fading. The finding explained the reasons of the observed higher capacity retention over many charging cycles in the Co-free cathode, making it a strong candidate for next-generation lithium-ion batteries.

These findings identify a pathway toward more sustainable, high-performance lithium-ion batteries without relying on scarce and expensive cobalt.

“The study confirms that cobalt-free cathodes can outperform those with cobalt and provides a deeper understanding of the involved mechanisms. The use of advanced X-ray spectroscopy techniques allowed us to further refine cathode materials and enhance their efficiency and longevity”, says Laura Simonelli, group leader at the CLAESS beamline and main author of the study.

As the demand for cleaner energy storage solutions rises, this research contributes to the ongoing development of safer, more affordable, and environmentally friendly battery technologies.

Read more on ALBA website

Battery research: visualisation of aging processes operando

Battery research: visualisation of aging processes operando

Lithium button cells with electrodes made of nickel-manganese-cobalt oxides (NMC) are very powerful. Unfortunately, their capacity decreases over time. Now, for the first time, a team has used a non-destructive method to observe how the elemental composition of the individual layers in a button cell changes during charging cycles. The study, now published in the journal Small, involved teams from the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), the University of Münster, researchers from the SyncLab research group at HZB and the BLiX laboratory at the Technical University of Berlin. Measurements were carried out in the BLiX laboratory and at the BESSY II synchrotron radiation source.

Lithium-ion batteries have become increasingly better. The combination of layered nickel-manganese-cobalt oxides (NMC) with a graphite electrode (anode) has been well established as the cathode material in button cells and has been continuously improved. However, even the best batteries do not last forever; they ‘age’ and lose capacity over time.

‘A lot happens at the interfaces between the anode, separator and cathode while a battery is charging or discharging,’ explains Ioanna Mantouvalou, physicist at HZB and first author of the study. Typically, these changes are only studied after the battery has been disassembled, i.e. ex situ and at a specific point in the cycling process. But there is now another way: in situ and operando experiments allow to look inside the battery while the processes are taking place, using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) in a so-called confocal geometry. This geometry permits 3D scanning of a sample with depth resolutions down to 10 µm. Such experimental setups are already possible at the synchrotron radiation source BESSY II. However, the measurement time at BESSY II is limited, so batteries cannot be studied over their entire lifetime.

Read more on HZB website

Image: Here is a selection of 3D element distributions of individual elements after 10,000 charge cycles, i.e. post mortem: On the top left, crystallised electrolyte can be seen, iron in the metal contacts and copper from the back contact have remained stable, while manganese from the NMC cathode (upper light blue stripe) has partially deposited on the bottom of the anode. The publication contains the full explanation.

Credit: BLiX/TU Berlin/HZB

New protective coating can improve battery performance

New protective coating can improve battery performance

A research team at the Paul Scherrer Institute PSI has developed a new sustainable process that can be used to improve the electrochemical performance of lithium-ion batteries. Initial tests of high-voltage batteries modified in this way have been successful. This method could be used to make lithium-ion batteries, for example those for electric vehicles, significantly more efficient.

Lithium-ion batteries are considered a key technology for decarbonisation. Therefore, researchers around the world are working to continuously improve their performance, for example by increasing their energy density. “One way to achieve this is to increase the operating voltage,” says Mario El Kazzi from the Center for Energy and Environmental Sciences at Paul Scherrer Institute PSI. “If the voltage increases, the energy density also increases.”

However, there is a problem: At operating voltages above 4.3 volts, strong chemical and electrochemical degradation processes take place at the transition between the cathode, the positive pole, and the electrolyte, the conductive medium. The surface of the cathode materials gets severely damaged by the release of oxygen, dissolution of transition metals, and structural reconstruction – which in turn results in a continuous increase in cell resistance and a decrease in capacity. This is why commercial battery cells, such as those used in electric cars, have so far only run at a maximum of 4.3 volts.

To solve this problem, El Kazzi and his team have developed a new method to stabilise the surface of the cathode by coating it with a thin, uniform protective layer. The researchers report on their discovery in a study published in the scientific journal ChemSusChem (Wiley).

Read more on PSI website

Image: Mario El Kazzi and his team have developed a cathode surface coating that enables operating voltages of up to 4.8 volts.

Credit: Paul Scherrer Institute PSI/Mahir Dzambegovic

Manganese Cathodes Could Boost Lithium-ion Batteries

Manganese Cathodes Could Boost Lithium-ion Batteries

Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries are growing in adoption, used in devices like smartphones and laptops, electric vehicles, and energy storage systems. But supplies of nickel and cobalt commonly used in the cathodes of these batteries are limited. New research led by the Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) opens up a potential low-cost, safe alternative in manganese, the fifth most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust.

Researchers showed that manganese can be effectively used in emerging cathode materials called disordered rock salts, or DRX. Previous research suggested that to perform well, DRX materials had to be ground down to nanosized particles in an energy-intensive process. But the new study found that manganese-based cathodes can actually excel with particles that are about 1000 times larger than expected. The work was published Sept. 19 in the journal Nature Nanotechnology.

“There are many ways to generate power with renewable energy, but the importance lies in how you store it,” said Han-Ming Hau, who researches battery technology as part of Berkeley Lab’s Ceder Group and is a PhD student at UC Berkeley. “By applying our new approach, we can use a material that is both earth-abundant and low-cost, and that takes less energy and time to produce than some commercialized Li-ion battery cathode materials. And it can store as much energy and work just as well.”

The researchers used a novel two-day process that first removes lithium ions from the cathode material and then heats it at low temperatures (about 200 degrees Celsius). This contrasts with the existing process for manganese-based DRX materials, which takes more than three weeks of treatment.

Researchers used state-of-the-art electron microscopes to capture atomic-scale pictures of the manganese-based material in action. They found that after applying their process, the material formed a nanoscale semi-ordered structure that actually enhanced the battery performance, allowing it to densely store and deliver energy.

The team also used different techniques with X-rays to study how battery cycling causes chemical changes to manganese and oxygen at the macroscopic level. By studying how the manganese material behaves at different scales, the team opens up different methods for making manganese-based cathodes and insights into nano-engineering future battery materials.

Read more on ALS website

Image: A new process for manganese-based battery materials lets researchers use larger particles, imaged here by a scanning electron microscope. 

Credit: Han-Ming Hau/Berkeley Lab and UC Berkeley

Thin layer of tin prevents short-circuiting in lithium-ion batteries

Thin layer of tin prevents short-circuiting in lithium-ion batteries

ithium-ion batteries have a lot of advantages. They charge quickly, have a high energy density, and can be repeatedly charged and discharged.

They do have one significant shortcoming, however: they’re prone to short-circuiting.  This occurs when a connection forms between the two electrodes inside the cell. A short circuit can result in a sudden loss of voltage or the rapid discharge of high current, both causing the battery to fail. In extreme cases, a short circuit can cause a cell to overheat, start on fire, or even explode.

A leading cause of short circuits are rough, tree-like crystal structures called dendrites that can form on the surface of one of the electrodes. When dendrites grow all the way across the cell and make contact with the other electrode, a short circuit can occur.

Using the Canadian Light Source (CLS) at the University of Saskatchewan (USask), researchers from the University of Alberta (UAlberta) have come up with a promising approach to prevent formation of dendrites in solid-state lithium-ion batteries. They found that adding a tin-rich layer between the electrode and the electrolyte helps spread the lithium around when it’s being deposited on the battery, creating a smooth surface that suppresses the formation of dendrites. The results are published in the journal ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces. The team also found that the cell modified with the tin-rich structure can operate at a much higher current and withstand many more charging-discharging cycles than a regular cell.

Read more on CLS website

Unique properties of a new anode material for Li-ion cells.

Unique properties of a new anode material for Li-ion cells.

Researchers from AGH, Shanghai Institute of Space Power-Sources and the University of Silesia have conducted research on a new anode material. The material features a simple synthesis method, excellent cyclic stability and good electrochemical performance. Experimental studies have been carried out using the technique of X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS on PIRX line), and the pioneering results have been published in the journal ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces.

Lithium-ion batteries are a ubiquitous technology for today’s society, being crucial especially for portable electronics and the electrification of transport. However, from a point of view of further growth of the Li-ion batteries market and emerging applications, new cells with an extended lifespan, improved safety, as well as higher energy and/or power density are indispensable. To achieve this goal, one of the most significant objectives is to replace the conventional graphite anode, working already at its theoretical limits, with other, better compounds. Although much higher capacities can be obtained by employing anode materials that store lithium based on different Li-storage mechanisms, as compared to graphite, new challenging issues have emerged regarding their application. The main one is poor stability during cycling (i.e. charging and discharging), resulting in the unacceptable capacity fade. Recently it has been proposed to combine two different Li-storage mechanisms within a single compound, benefiting from their advantages and confining the disadvantages. The so-called conversion-alloying materials (CAMs) have been proposed and developed. Despite the overall improved electrochemical properties of CAMs, their still insufficient cycling stability remains a significant problem. So far, the only possibility of improving cyclability was to use complex and expensive synthesis methods and additives, which are hard to scale and expensive, and because of that, the vast majority of them will never be used for commercial production.

When studying the literature, authors of the publication found that a novel group of materials, the so-called high-entropy oxides (HEOs), has brought particular attention in the field of materials science and is currently extensively studied all over the world. HEOs are materials containing numerous elements (typically five or more) in a ratio close to equimolar, resulting in the high configurational entropy of the such system (hence the name). Because of the presence of many constituents and complex interactions between them, these compounds may exhibit exceptional properties, which cannot be simply predicted by analyzing the components individually. For example, one such effect is the excellent cycling stability observed for HEOs when they are applied as anode materials in Li-ion batteries. The reasons for this behavior, however, have not been fully understood so far.

Maciej Moździerz, the first author of the publication says: “In our work, we decided to resolve the problem of the capacity fade of CAMs by developing a novel concept of application of the high-entropy approach to CAMs. We successfully created a new anode material for Li-ion batteries, Sn0.80Co0.44Mg0.44Mn0.44Ni0.44Zn0.44O4, characterized by the excellent cycling stability, as well as good electrochemical performance. Very importantly, it can be obtained using a simple synthesis method, without expensive additives, and therefore, is easily transferable to the industrial scale. Then, we wanted to take a step further and explain in details why exactly this material works very well, and how in particular the high-entropy approach ensures great stability. For this purpose, we had to use several experimental techniques allowing investigating battery materials at the atomic scale, including X-ray absorption spectroscopy experiments, which were possible thanks to the use of the research infrastructure of the National Synchrotron Radiation Centre SOLARIS.”

Read more on SOLARIS website

X-ray nanotomography reveals 3D microstructure of graphite anodes for lithium-ion batteries

X-ray nanotomography reveals 3D microstructure of graphite anodes for lithium-ion batteries

The optimisation of battery electrode architecture is a key aspect of improving battery performance, provided that precise characterisation of the complex battery microstructure is possible. In this work, X-ray nanotomography [1] was used at beamline ID16B [2] to obtain high-resolution images of the microstructure of graphite battery electrodes, providing 3D analysis and thorough quantification of the electrode/particle inner structure and porosity at the nanoscale.

A crucial step in the production of battery-grade natural graphite for lithium-ion batteries is the spheroidisation process: the morphological change that occurs in the electrode material during cycling or charging/discharging cycles. However, the low yield (30-50%) of this process results in a large quantity of wasted graphite fines that are not suitable for use in lithium-ion batteries due to their small particle size [3]. A method was devised to recycle waste graphite fines via a re-agglomeration process followed by a petroleum pitch coating in order to obtain aggregated graphite particles with sound mechanical strength and battery-suitable size to be used for electrode preparation. A compression step called ‘calendering’ was applied to the electrode’s coating to reduce its thickness and consequently increase its volumetric capacity.

X-ray nanotomography measurements carried out at beamline ID16B provided important microstructural details of the electrode-representative volumes (128 × 128 × 108 µm3 with 50 nm voxel size), along with statistical analysis of ~500 particles imaged in a single measurement. Data acquired on non-calendered and calendered pristine electrodes show that higher electrode density could be reached by calendering the electrode, without considerably affecting the active material accessibility through diffusion in the pore network. Despite the considerable morphological changes, no clear agglomerate fractures were observed, and particle integrity was preserved as individual agglomerate particles could still be distinguished. This highlights the fact that structural integrity is maintained from the electrode scale down to the particle level, and that the calendering process does not compromise the electrochemical performance.

Read more on ESRF website

Image: lectrode and particle porosity evolution with calendering in terms of (a) pore volume fraction and (b-e) microstructure. 3D rendering views of the (b) non-calendered and (c) calendered electrodes and (d,e) corresponding isolated graphite aggregated particles (with cross-section images).

Unraveling the structural transformation of Li-rich materials in lithium-batteries

Unraveling the structural transformation of Li-rich materials in lithium-batteries

Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) are essentials in everyday life in mobile applications as well as in hybrid/electric mobility. The extraordinary market success of this technology is forcing hard the need of LIBs with improved energy density, environmental compatibility and safety, making necessary to push this technology beyond the current state of the art. In this framework, Co-poor Lithium Rich Layered Oxides (LRLOs) are the most strategic alternative to current Co-rich layered oxide positive electrode materials thanks to the excellent combination of large specific capacity (>250 mAhg-1), high energy density (up to 900 WhKg-1), small costs and improved environmental benignity. The excellent performance of LRLOs derives from the peculiar combination of redox processes originated from the transition metals and the oxygen anions sublattice. The practical use of LRLOs is hindered by several drawbacks, such as voltage decay, capacity fading, and an irreversible capacity lost in the first cycle. These issues are related to structural rearrangements in the lattice upon cycling.

In this work, we demonstrate a new family of LRLOs with general formula Li1.2+xMn0.54Ni0.13Cox-yAl0.03O2 (0.03 ≤ x ≤ 0.08 and 0.03 ≤ y ≤ 0.05), obtained from the replacement of cobalt with lithium and aluminum and we highlight how the balancing of the metal blend can lead to improvements of the Coulombic efficiency in the first cycle, a better capacity retention and reduced voltage decay. To shed light on the complex crystal-chemistry of this class of LRLOs we studied the Co-poorest member of this homologue material series, namely Li1.28Mn0.54Ni0.13Co0.02Al0.03O2, in order to prove the structural evolution occurring upon charge/discharge in lithium cell. To these aims, electrodes have been recovered during the first cycle, the second cycle and after ten cycles of charge/discharge by de-assembling lithium cells into an Ar-filled glove box. These post mortem materials have been sealed in borosilicate capillary tubes (see Fig. 1a) and studied ex situ by X-ray powder diffraction at the MCX beamline.

Read more on the Elettra website

Image: Fig. 1b shows the potential curves vs time for the first two cycles and highlights the points, marked with A, B, C and so on, where the charge or discharge step was stopped and the materials recovered for analysis. According to the diffraction data (Fig. 1c), structural alterations of Li1.28Mn0.54Ni0.13Co0.02Al0.03O2 start with a fast broadening and a shift of the peaks suggesting a smooth lattice modification. When the cell reaches 4.8V vs Li+, a second phase can be identified. In the discharge process opposite structural transformations occur.

Modelling electrochemical potential for better Li-batteries

Modelling electrochemical potential for better Li-batteries

To understand the electrochemical potential of lithium-ion batteries, it’s important to decipher the chemical processes at electrode interfaces occurring during device activity. Using HIPPIE beamline, a research group investigated and modelled the influence of electrochemical potential differences in operando in these batteries.

“With our experiments at HIPPIE, we had the opportunity to look at battery materials and interface reactions under operating conditions exploring the capabilities of the electrochemical setup at the end station,” said Julia Maibach, study author and professor at the Institute for Applied Materials – Energy Storage Systems at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) in Germany. “We were among the first users testing the electrochemical set up including the glove box for inert sample transfer.”

Why study electrochemical potential difference in batteries? This phenomenon drives the transfer of charged particles to different phases in redox reactions at battery electrode-electrolyte interfaces. In simple terms, the difference enables the chemical reaction necessary for Li-ion battery function.

Read more on the MAX IV website

Image: Research group studies gold and copper model electrodes at MAX IV’s HIPPIE beamline with Ambient Pressure Photoelectron Spectroscopy (APPES) during lithiation

Credit: MAX IV Laboratory

What drives rechargeable battery decay?

What drives rechargeable battery decay?

How quickly a battery electrode decays depends on properties of individual particles in the battery – at first. Later on, the network of particles matters more.

Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries don’t last forever – after enough cycles of charging and recharging, they’ll eventually go kaput, so researchers are constantly looking for ways to squeeze a little more life out of their battery designs.

Now, researchers at the Department of Energy’s SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and colleagues from Purdue University, Virginia Tech, and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility have discovered that the factors behind battery decay actually change over time. Early on, decay seems to be driven by the properties of individual electrode particles, but after several dozen charging cycles, it’s how those particles are put together that matters more.

“The fundamental building blocks are these particles that make up the battery electrode, but when you zoom out, these particles interact with each other,” said SLAC scientist Yijin Liu, a researcher at the lab’s Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource and a senior author on the new paper. Therefore, “if you want to build a better battery, you need to look at how to put the particles together.”

Read more on the SLAC website

Image: A piece of battery cathode after 10 charging cycles. A machine-learning feature detection and quantification algorithm allowed researchers to automatically single out the most severely damaged particles of interest, which are highlighted in the image.

Credit: Courtesy Yijin Liu/SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory

X-rays capture ageing process in EV batteries

X-rays capture ageing process in EV batteries

CLS researcher Toby Bond uses x-rays to help engineer powerful electric vehicle batteries with longer lifetimes. His research, published in The Journal of the Electrochemical Society, shows how the charge/discharge cycles of batteries cause physical damage eventually leading to reduced energy storage. This new work points to a link between cracks that form in the battery material and depletion of vital liquids that carry charge.

Bond uses the BMIT facility at the Canadian Light Source at the University of Saskatchewan to produce detailed CT scans of the inside of batteries. Working with Dr. Jeff Dahn at Dalhousie University, he specializes in batteries for electric vehicles, where the research imperative is to pack in as much energy as possible into a lightweight device.

“A big drawback to packing in more energy is that generally, the more energy you pack in, the faster the battery will degrade,” says Bond.

In lithium-ion batteries, this is because charging physically forces lithium ions between other atoms in the electrode material, pushing them apart. Adding more charge causes more growth in the materials, which shrink back down when the lithium ions leave. Over many cycles of this growing and shrinking, micro-cracks begin to form in the material, slowly reducing its ability to hold a charge.

Read more on the CLS website

Image: Toby Bond adjusts a battery sample on the BMIT beamline

Korean scientists test the brand-new MYSTIIC

Korean scientists test the brand-new MYSTIIC

Jongwoo and his team from Seoul are “friendly users”. This name is given to scientists who do their experiments on a pristine machine, before it goes into user operation. Back in Korea we called them to hear more about their special beamtime and what it means for their battery research.

Who are you and how did you discover BESSY II?

I am Jongwoo Lim, assistant professor at the department of chemistry at Seoul National University. My research group “Battery and Energy Research Lab” counts many talented young scientists. In 2018 a colleague from the Max Planck Society invited me to give a talk and, on this occasion, I visited BESSY II. Back in Seoul I wanted my team to discover this amazing science environment.

Getting beamtime at BESSY II, how does this work?

The competition for beamtime is very strong, many scientists want to come to BESSY II! We send in a proposal and were rejected several times. Finally, after 2 years we got the green light for some beamtime at MAXYMUS, the beamline of the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems (more below). And on top of that, beamline scientist Markus asked us if we were interested to use and test MYSTIIC (Microscope for x-raY Scanning Transmission In-situ Imaging of Catalysts). This new microscope will go into operation in Spring 2022.

Read more on the HZB blog science site

Image: Jongwoo’s team from Korea at BESSY II

Preparing for the next generation of batteries

Preparing for the next generation of batteries

In the ongoing quest to build a better battery, researchers used the Canadian Light Source (CLS) at the University of Saskatchewan to identify the potential of using polymer composites as electrode matrices to increase the capacity of rechargeable lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries.

“The composition of the adhesive and conductive framework for batteries hasn’t changed in years,” said Dr. Christian Kuss, assistant professor in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Manitoba and one of three researchers on the project. “But, we’re reaching the limit of how much capacity Li-Ion batteries have so this work is essentially preparing for the next generation of batteries.”

Over many cycles of charging and discharging, battery materials begin to break down, he explained. “The goal is to find new matrix materials that allow the electrode to stay intact over longer periods of time and thereby increase capacity.”

The new matrix material Kuss and his colleagues studied was based on a mixture of two polymers – one adhesive and the other conductive. The adhesive polymer is cellulose based, he said, while the conductive one “is easily synthesized and fairly cheap.” Cost is an important consideration “because you ultimately want a battery that is comparable in terms of pricing to what’s already available.”

At the CLS, the researchers used the Spectromicroscopy beamline to study the chemical structure of the polymer mixture. “With this technique, we could see the mixture and see how the polymers were distributed at a microscale.”

Read more on the CLS website

Image: Battery cyclers for running and testing batteries.